An aptamer by definition is an isolated nucleic acid molecule which binds with high specificity and affinity to some target such as a protein through interactions other than Watson-Crick base pairing. Although aptamers are nucleic acid based molecules, there is a fundamental difference between aptamers and other nucleic acid molecules such as genes and mRNA. In the latter, the nucleic acid structure encodes information through its linear base sequence and thus this sequence is of importance to the function of information storage. In complete contrast, aptamer function, which is based upon the specific binding of a target molecule, is not dependent on a conserved linear base sequence, but rather a particular secondary/tertiary structure. That is, aptamers are non-coding sequences. Any coding potential that an aptamer may possess is entirely fortuitous and plays no role whatsoever in the binding of an aptamer to its cognate target. Thus, while it may be that aptamers that bind to the same target, and even to the same site on that target, share a similar linear base sequence, most do not.
Aptamers must also be differentiated from the naturally occurring nucleic acid sequences that bind to certain proteins. These latter sequences are naturally occurring sequences embedded within the genome of the organism that bind to a specialized sub-group of proteins that are involved in the transcription, translation and transportation of naturally occurring nucleic acids, i.e., nucleic acid binding proteins. Aptamers on the other hand are short, isolated, non-naturally occurring nucleic acid molecules. While aptamers can be identified that bind nucleic acid binding proteins, in most cases such aptamers have little or no sequence identity to the sequences recognized by the nucleic acid binding proteins in nature. More importantly, aptamers can bind virtually any protein (not just nucleic acid binding proteins) as well as almost any target of interest including small molecules, carbohydrates, peptides, etc. For most targets, even proteins, a naturally occurring nucleic acid sequence to which it binds does not exist. For those targets that do have such a sequence, i.e., nucleic acid binding proteins, such sequences will differ from aptamers as a result of the relatively low binding affinity used in nature as compared to tightly binding aptamers.
Aptamers, like peptides generated by phage display or antibodies, are capable of specifically binding to selected targets and modulating the target's activity or binding interactions, e.g., through binding aptamers may block their target's ability to function. As with antibodies, this functional property of specific binding to a target is an inherent property. Also as with antibodies, although the skilled person may not know what precise structural characteristics an aptamer to a target will have, the skilled person knows how to identify, make and use such a molecule in the absence of a precise structural definition.
Aptamers also are analogous to small molecule therapeutics in that a single structural change, however seemingly minor, can dramatically effect (by several orders of magnitude) the binding and/or other activity (or activities) of the aptamer. On the other hand, some structural changes will have little or no effect whatsoever. This results from the importance of the secondary/tertiary structure of aptamers. In other words, an aptamer is a three dimensional structure held in a fixed conformation that provides chemical contacts to specifically bind its given target. Consequently: (1) some areas or particular sequences are essential as (a) specific points of contact with target, and/or as (b) sequences that position the molecules in contact with the target; (2) some areas or particular sequences have a range of variability, e.g., nucleotide X must be a pyrimidine, or nucleotide Y must be a purine, or nucleotides X and Y must be complementary; and (3) some areas or particular sequences can be anything, i.e., they are essentially spacing elements, e.g., they could be any string of nucleotides of a given length or even an non-nucleotide spacer such as a PEG molecule.
Discovered by an in vitro selection process from pools of random sequence oligonucleotides, aptamers have been generated for over 130 proteins including growth factors, transcription factors, enzymes, immunoglobulins, and receptors. A typical aptamer is 10-15 kDa in size (20-45 nucleotides), binds its target with nanomolar to sub-nanomolar affinity, and discriminates against closely related targets (e.g., aptamers will typically not bind other proteins from the same gene family). A series of structural studies have shown that aptamers are capable of using the same types of binding interactions (e.g., hydrogen bonding, electrostatic complementarities, hydrophobic contacts, steric exclusion) that drive affinity and specificity in antibody-antigen complexes.
Aptamers have a number of desirable characteristics for use as therapeutics and diagnostics including high specificity and affinity, biological efficacy, and excellent pharmacokinetic properties. In addition, they offer specific competitive advantages over antibodies and other protein biologics, for example:
1) Speed and control. Aptamers are produced by an entirely in vitro process, allowing for the rapid generation of initial leads, including therapeutic leads. In vitro selection allows the specificity and affinity of the aptamer to be tightly controlled and allows the generation of leads, including leads against both toxic and non-immunogenic targets.
2) Toxicity and Immunogenicity. Aptamers as a class have demonstrated therapeutically acceptable toxicity or lack of immunogenicity. Whereas the efficacy of many monoclonal antibodies can be severely limited by immune response to antibodies themselves, it is extremely difficult to elicit antibodies to aptamers most likely because aptamers cannot be presented by T-cells via the MHC and the immune response is generally trained not to recognize nucleic acid fragments.
3) Administration. Whereas most currently approved antibody therapeutics are administered by intravenous infusion (typically over 2-4 hours), aptamers can be administered by subcutaneous injection (aptamer bioavailability via subcutaneous administration is >80% in monkey studies (Tucker et al., J. Chromatography B. 732: 203-212, 1999)). This difference is primarily due to the comparatively low solubility and thus large volumes necessary for most therapeutic mAbs. With good solubility (>150 mg/mL) and comparatively low molecular weight (aptamer: 10-50 kDa; antibody: 150 kDa), a weekly dose of aptamer may be delivered by injection in a volume of less than 0.5 mL. In addition, the small size of aptamers allows them to penetrate into areas of conformational constrictions that do not allow for antibodies or antibody fragments to penetrate, presenting yet another advantage of aptamer-based therapeutics or prophylaxis.
4) Scalability and cost. Therapeutic aptamers are chemically synthesized and consequently can be readily scaled as needed to meet production demand. Whereas difficulties in scaling production are currently limiting the availability of some biologics and the capital cost of a large-scale protein production plant is enormous, a single large-scale oligonucleotide synthesizer can produce upwards of 100 kg/year and requires a relatively modest initial investment. The current cost of goods for aptamer synthesis at the kilogram scale is estimated at $500/g, comparable to that for highly optimized antibodies. Continuing improvements in process development are expected to lower the cost of goods to <$100/g in five years.
5) Stability. Therapeutic aptamers are chemically robust. They are intrinsically adapted to regain activity following exposure to factors such as heat and denaturants and can be stored for extended periods (>1 yr) at room temperature as lyophilized powders. In contrast, antibodies must be stored refrigerated.
In addition to the intrinsic stability of aptamers, modified nucleotides (e.g., 2′-modified nucleotides) which are inexpensive, non-toxic, and which can increase resistance to enzymatic, chemical, thermal, and physical degradation, can be incorporated during SELEX™ method as described in U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/729,851 filed Dec. 3, 2002, and U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/873,856, filed Jun. 21, 2004. While incorporation of modified nucleotides during SELEX™ process is oftentimes preferable to post-SELEX™ modification due to potential loss of binding affinity and activity that can occur post-SELEX™ selection, the incorporation of modified nucleotides, e.g. 2′-O-methyl nucleotides (“2-OMe”), during the SELEX™ process has been historically difficult because of low transcription yields. Solution conditions and transcription mixtures are described in U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/729,851 filed Dec. 3, 2002, and U.S. patent application U.S. Ser. No. 10/873,856, filed Jun. 21, 2004, which give improved transcription yields for aptamers incorporating 2′-OMe nucleotides. However transcription yields for fully 2′-O-methylated aptamers remain problematic.
In addition to the advantages of aptamers as therapeutic agent, given the inexpensive nature, low toxicity, and increased nuclease resistance conferred by the incorporation of 2′-OMe nucleotides in aptamers, it would be beneficial to have materials and methods to increase transcript yields of fully 2′-O-methylated aptamers to, e.g., prolong or increase the stability of aptamer therapeutics in vivo. The present invention provides improved materials and methods to meet these and other needs.